According to erikson, what is the developmental challenge during toddlerhood?

erik erikson(1902-1994), a german psychoanalyst developed an eight stage theory to identify and psychosocial development. he was greatly influenced by sigmund freud and his works. by the great works his mentor, he explored three aspects of identity: the ego identity(self), personal identity and social/cultural identity. according to his theory of development, every person must pass through a series of 8 interrelated stages over the entire life cycle. 1.infancy:birth-18 months old(basic trust vs mistrust). 2.toddler/early childhood years:18 months to 3 years(autonomy vs shame). 3.preschooler:3-5 years old(initiative vs guilt). 4.school age child:6-12 years(industry vs inferiority). 5.adolescent:12-18 years(identity vs role confusion). 6.young adult:18-35 years(intimacy and solidarity vs isolation). 7.middle-aged adult:35-55 or 65(generativity vs self absorption or stagnation). 8.late adult:55 or 65-death(integrity vs despair). 2. toddler/early childhood years: 18 months to 3 years(autonomy vs shame):- this stage according to erikson, occurs between the ages of 18 months to 3 years. at this stage, the child has the opportunity to build self-esteem and autonomy as he/she learns new skills for him/her self with pride rather than shame. also during time, defiance, temper, tantrums and stubbornness may appear. children tend to be vulnerable during this stage, sometimes feeling shame and low self-esteem during an inability to learn certain new skills.

elizabeth loftus conducted a study to observe the reliability of eyewitnesses during the 1970s. their baseline was to define how accurate are the recollections of eyewitnesses.

her studies do not support the use of eyewitness. loftus mentions in her work that we are not required to recall some experiences, meaning that rarely an individual eyewitness testimony is trustworthy. a good example is presented in her work, where all individuals watched a video and were than asked "about how fast were the cars going when they hit/smash? ". the testimonies changed based on the word she used to make the question (hit or smash), proving the fragility.

what are the options?