In the late 1980s, Douglas Massey and Nancy Denton examined large cities across the United States and documented the existence of a pattern they called.

manifest functions are the recognized and intended consequences of any social pattern, while latent functions are those unrecognized and unintended consequences. to analyze the manifest functions of any social institution, we have to study its contribution to the continuation of a group, community, or society.

swahili is an extremely rich and complex civilization, a set of ethnic groups articulated by a language and a series of cultural elements that fuse the african traditions, islam and indian culture. this growth was largely a result of the indian ocean trading network that brought in not just man-made riches, but also religious ideas, specifically islam, which had a significant impact on the local culture. furthermore, the development of the swahili language gave a common cultural unity to the people.

an informal structure in a bureaucracy would be something like so-called "office politics". where there's a formal structure set up for the organization, but then an informal subculture as well that has a way of organizing the bureaucracy further. this can be positive because it sets up an added degree of organization, albeit informal, within the bureaucracy.