Acovered entity may use or disclose phi without an authorization, or documentation of a waiver or an alteration of authorization, for all of the following except:
a. use of decedents’ information, with certain representations by the researcher.
b. limited data set with an approved data use agreement.
c. activities preparatory to research, with certain representations by the researcher.
d. data that does not cross state lines when disclosed by the covered entity.

D. Data that does not cross state lines when disclosed by the covered entity.

Explanation:

Protected Health Information (PHI) refers to the set of requirements that a researchers must adhere to and must ensure during a research when handling patient health data. The set of requirements are related to authorization and documentation to use that information and access to that information. Here, decedents’ information, limited access to data set with an approved data use agreement, and activities preparatory to research, with certain representations by the researcher are all covered under PHI handling and authorizations as per HIPPA except for the option D.

experiments.

surveys.

questionnaires.

interviews.

case studies.

participant and non-participant observation.

observational trials.

studies using the delphi method.

"choosing is refusing" means individuals face an opportunity cost with each decision they make. economists state that every decision involves trade-offs. opportunity cost is the least desirable alternative given up as a result of a decision.