In a study on aggression, a group of university students were given an experimental task intended to be frustrating. then, the participants were given a task that forced them to administer (fake) electric shocks to another participant. given what is known about gender differences and aggression, it is not surprising that administered more painful electric shocks.

Martha participates in a research study in order to receive extra credit for her psychology class. when she arrives in the research office she is given a can of what looks and tastes like beer, but which actually contains no alcohol. in the adjoining room martha's classmate karen is also participating in the study. karen receives a can of alcoholic beer. if the experiment was designed to test the effects of alcohol on concentration, then who is exposed to the independent variable?