When fusion begins in a high mass protostar, which kind of star is formed? blue star. yellow star. red star. 2. to which galactic cluster does our solar system belong? andromeda cluster local group virgo cluster cepheid group 3. who devised a method to measure the circumference of the earth? aristarchus ptolemy copernicus eratosthenes 4. which method allows us to estimate the distance to the furthest galaxies observable? globular clusters brightest galaxy in cluster supernovae novae 5. what is believed to be at the center of most galaxies? quasars supermassive black holes cepheid variables neutron stars 6. how many times brighter is a magnitude +1 star than a magnitude +2 star? 1 ⽠times brighter 2 ⽠times brighter ⽠times brighter 2 times brighter 7. what is the name of pluto’s satellite? titan charon ganymede callisto 8. how are mass and luminosity related? larger mass implies less luminosity larger mass implies more luminosity there is no relationship between mass and luminosity.

The reason that fusion of light elements produces energy to support a star is because of the “mass defect” we discussed when we studied the proton-proton chain. The product of hydrogen fusion (one helium nucleus) has less mass than the four hydrogen nuclei that created it. The extra mass has been converted into energy. Each fusion reaction of light elements in the core of a high mass star always has a mass defect. That is, the product of the reaction has less mass than the reactants. However, when you fuse iron, the product of iron fusion has more mass than the reactants. Therefore, iron fusion does not create energy; instead, iron fusion requires the input of energy.

When iron builds up in the core of a high mass star, there are catastrophic consequences. The process of fusing iron requires the star's core to use energy, which causes the core to cool. This causes the pressure to go down, which speeds up the gravitational collapse of the core. This causes a chain reaction: core collapses, iron fusion rate increases, pressure decreases, core collapses faster, iron fusion rate increases, pressure decreases, core collapses faster, iron fusion rate increases, etc., which causes the star's core to collapse in on itself instantaneously. After the core collapses, it rebounds. A large quantity of neutrinos get created in reactions in the core, and the rebounding core and the newly created neutrinos go flying outward, expelling the outer layers of the star in a gigantic explosion called a supernova (to be precise, a type II or core collapse supernova).

For a brief period of time, the amount of light generated by one star undergoing a supernova explosion is greater than the luminosity of 1 billion stars like the Sun. These explosions are so bright that they are visible at immense distances. If a nearby star were to undergo a supernova explosion, it would be so bright it would be visible during the daytime. In modern history, no supernova has gone off close enough to us to be visible during the daytime. However, both Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler observed naked-eye supernovae during their lifetimes. In 1987, a supernova went off about 50,000 parsecs away from us. Below is a ground-based telescope image of the supernova about 2 weeks after the explosion. Note how bright the exploding star (lower right corner) is compared to all of the rest of the objects in the image.

scattering of light by tiny particles in air to produce the colors we see on sky, is dependent on the following factors:

(i) wavelength of light

(ii) size of the scattering particle  

(iii) distance traveled by light through the atmosphere.

according to rayleigh's law of scattering, the amount of scattering is inversely proportional to the fourth power of its wavelength. shorter the wavelength, greater is its scattering. hence violet/blue light is scattered more than red.

sun's light is a composite light ( visible light) with wavelengths in the range 400 nm (violet) to 700 nm (red). as sunlight passes through our atmosphere, the molecules of air scatter light according to their wavelengths. during sunrise and sunset, the sun's position is below the horizon. hence light from the sun travels a greater distance in the atmosphere when compared to its position a noon.

as sunlight enters the earth's atmosphere, blue light is scattered away and at the end of its journey in the sky, only red and orange wavelengths remain in the beam.

hence at sunrise and sunset, the sky appears reddish orange.