In 2015, the European Commission charged six U. S. studios and a U. K. pay television company, Sky UK, with unfairly blocking access to films and other content. The charges challenge the studios' requirement under contracts that Sky UK block access for consumers outside Britain and Ireland. (Kanter, James, and Mark Scott, "E. U. Opens Antitrust Case Against Major U. S. Studios and Sky UK," New York Times, July 23, 2015.) The studios have separate contracts with broadcasters in other countries. Why do the studios want such restrictions? The studios seek restrictions blocking access to films and other content across country lines in order to A. segment markets. B. limit market power. C. changes preferences. D. allow resale. E. promote arbitrage.

Reliability and validity reliability and validity are two important considerations that must be made with any type of data collection. reliability refers to the ability to consistently produce a given result. in the context of psychological research, this would mean that any instruments or tools used to collect data do so in consistent, reproducible ways. unfortunately, being consistent in measurement does not necessarily mean that you have measured something correctly. to illustrate this concept, consider a kitchen scale that would be used to measure the weight of cereal that you eat in the morning. if the scale is not properly calibrated, it may consistently under- or overestimate the amount of cereal that’s being measured. while the scale is highly reliable in producing consistent results (e. g., the same amount of cereal poured onto the scale produces the same reading each time), those results are incorrect. this is where validity comes into play. validity refers to the extent to which a given instrument or tool accurately measures what it’s supposed to measure. while any valid measure is by necessity reliable, the reverse is not necessarily true. researchers strive to use instruments that are both highly reliable and valid.