How do UV, X-rays, Gamma - rays, and carcinogenic chemicals cause mutations?

All individuals have two alleles for a given trait. according to mendel's these alleles are passed down one each from both mother and father.

Which of the following statements is correct in hour our immune system responds to a potential pathogen? a. the adapted immune system will call on the innate immune system to destroy the pathogen. b. b cells will start reading the antigen code immediately and call t cells to assist in destroying the pathogen. c. the skin will be the first line of defense, and then the many phagocytes in the bloodstream will attempt to consume the possible pathogen. d. the t-cells in the adapted immune systems are the first to recognize the pathogen vaccines are weakened forms of disease causing microorganisms, which are given to patients to prevent disease. after the vaccine is administered, the immune system responds by creating a(n) to recognize the a. antigen, antibody b. antibody, antigen c. antibody, antibiotic d. antibiotic, antibody

Lupe is a carrier for color blindness. her husband clifford is colorblind. if lupe and clifford have four children, what's the probability of a boy being colorblind?